Utilitarianism

A profound and enduring question has long plagued humanity: what is the ultimate standard by which we ought to judge human conduct, the measure of right and wrong? For too long, thinkers have grappled with this, yet a consensus remains elusive. The principle that governs all morality, however, is not some abstruse concept, but rather the very foundation of human desire and aversion: the Greatest Happiness Principle. Actions are deemed right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, and wrong as they tend to produce the reverse. By happiness, one must understand pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure.

This principle, often misunderstood, does not advocate for a base, purely sensual existence. Indeed, a common misconception likens it to a "pig philosophy," suggesting that humans are reduced to mere pleasure-seeking animals. This critique entirely misses the crucial distinction between different kinds of pleasures. Human beings are endowed with faculties far superior to mere animal appetites. Pleasures of the intellect, of feeling and imagination, and of the moral sentiments possess a far higher value and permanence than those of mere sensation. One who has experienced both would invariably prefer the pleasures that engage their higher faculties, for few would consent to be a fool, even if the fool were perfectly content, or to be a pig, even if the pig's life were full of its characteristic delights.

The question then arises: what compels us to obey this principle? What are its sanctions? The ultimate sanctions of utilitarianism are both external and internal. External sanctions include the hope of favor and the fear of displeasure from our fellow creatures or from God, along with the sympathies and affections we feel for others, which prompt us to act in ways conducive to their happiness. The internal sanction, however, is the most potent: the feeling of duty, a pain more or less intense, attendant on the violation of duty. This feeling, conscience, is not innate but acquired; it can be cultivated and strengthened through education and social influence, ultimately binding us to the principle of utility through our very nature.

Consider the role of self-sacrifice. Does utilitarianism demand that individuals suppress their own happiness for the sake of others? While the utilitarian morality recognizes the power of human beings to sacrifice their own greatest good for the good of others, it firmly refuses to admit that the sacrifice itself is a good. A sacrifice that does not increase, or tend to increase, the sum total of happiness, is deemed wasted. The ideal perfection of utilitarian morality is to love your neighbor as yourself, and to act as impartially as a benevolent spectator, considering the happiness of all concerned.

But how can one prove such a fundamental principle? The only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people actually see it. The only proof that a sound is audible, is that people hear it. Similarly, the only evidence that anything is desirable is that people do actually desire it. Each person desires their own happiness, and this is a fact of human experience. Therefore, general happiness is a good to the aggregate of all persons. This does not mean that happiness is the sole thing desired; people also desire virtue, for instance. Yet, they desire virtue either as a part of happiness or as a means to happiness.

Finally, the concept of justice, often seen as an opposing force to utility, finds its place within the utilitarian framework. Justice is not some independent standard but is rooted in utility. The sentiment of justice involves two essential ingredients: a desire to punish those who have inflicted harm, and the knowledge or belief that there is some definite individual or individuals to whom harm has been inflicted. These sentiments are natural reactions to injury, but what makes them moral is their subjugation to the social sympathies and the general good. The most stringent obligations of justice - such as respecting legal and moral rights, giving people what they deserve, honoring commitments, and acting with impartiality - are those rules of conduct which are most vital to human well-being, and therefore, their observance is of paramount interest for the promotion of overall happiness. The entire moral edifice, then, rests upon the solid ground of human experience and the undeniable pursuit of happiness, not merely for oneself, but for the greatest number.